Petroleum

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Petroleum ( ) is a yellow-to-black natural liquid found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Usually refined into different types of fuel. The petroleum component is separated using a technique called fractional distillation which is the separation of the liquid mixture into different fractions in the boiling point by distillation, usually using fractionation column.

It consists of various molecular weight hydrocarbons and other organic compounds. The name petroleum includes both crude oil and naturally processed petroleum products made from refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large numbers of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried beneath sedimentary rocks and subjected to intense heat and pressure.

Petroleum has mostly been discovered by oil drilling (sparse natural oil springs). Drilling is carried out after structural geological studies (on reservoir scale), sediment basin analysis, and reservoir characterization (especially in terms of porosity and permeability of geological reservoir structures) have been completed. Fixed and separated, most easily by distillation, into a large number of consumer products, from petrol (petrol) and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used for making plastics and pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is used in the manufacture of various materials, and it is estimated that the world consumes about 95 million barrels per day.

Concerns over the depletion of limited petroleum reserves, and their effect on the communities that depend on them, are a concept known as peak oil. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, has a negative impact on the Earth's biosphere, destroying the ecosystem through events such as oil spills and releasing various pollutants into the air including lower-level ozone and sulfur dioxide from sulfur fumes in fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels plays a major role in the current episodes of global warming.

Video Petroleum

Etimologi

The word petroleum comes from the Ancient Greek: ????? , translit.Ã, petra , "rock" and Latin oleum , "oil" from Ancient Greece: ??? ??? , translit.Ã, elaion .

The term is found (in spelling of "petraoleum") in ancient 10th century English sources. It was used in the De Natura Fossilium treatise, published in 1546 by the German mineralist Georg Bauer, also known as Georgius Agricola. In the 19th century, the term petroleum was often used to refer to mineral oil produced by distillation of mined organic solids such as coal (and then oil shale), and the processed oil produced from them; in the UK, storage (and later transport) of these oils is governed by a series of Petroleum Acts, from the Petroleum Act 1863 and so on.

Maps Petroleum

History

Initial history

Oil, in one form or another, has been in use since ancient times, and is now important throughout society, including in economics, politics, and technology. The crucial rise is due to the invention of internal combustion engines, the rise of commercial aviation, and the importance of petroleum for organic industrial chemicals, in particular the synthesis of plastics, fertilizers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides.

More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of Babylonian walls and towers; there are oil holes near Ardericca (near Babylon), and springs at Zacynthus. Large numbers are found on the banks of the Issus river, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates river. Ancient Persian tablets show the use of drugs and petroleum lighting at the upper levels of their communities.

The use of petroleum originated from ancient China more than 2000 years ago. In I Ching, one of China's earliest chapters mentions that oil in its raw state, without purification, was first discovered, extracted, and used in China in the first century BC. In addition, China was the first to use petroleum as a fuel in the early fourth century BC.

At 347 M, oil is produced from bamboo drilling wells in China. Early British explorers to Myanmar documented the growing oil extraction industry in Yenangyaung which, in 1795, had hundreds of wells dug under production.

Pechelbronn (Pitch fountain) is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. Erdpechquelle is still active, springs where oil looks mixed with water has been used since 1498, mainly for medical purposes. Oil sand has been mined since the 18th century.

At Wietze in Lower Saxony, natural asphalt/asphalt has been explored since the 18th century. Both at Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominates petroleum technology.

Modern history

The chemist James Young noticed the natural petroleum seepage at the Ridding rode in Alfreton, Derbyshire from which he distilled a lightweight thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, while at the same time getting a more viscous oil suitable for lubricating the engine. In 1848, Young set up a small business to refine crude oil.

Young finally succeeds, by refining coal at low temperatures, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which, when treated in the same way as pervasive oil, gives a similar product. Young found that by slow distillation he was able to obtain some useful liquid from him, one of which he named "paraffin oil" because at low temperatures it froze into a paraffin-like substance.

The production of this oil and solid paraffin wax from coal formed its patent subject dated October 17, 1850. In 1850 Young & amp; Meldrum and Edward William Binney forged a partnership under the title E.W. Binney & amp; Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian and E. Meldrum & amp; Co in Glasgow; their work at Bathgate was completed in 1851 and became the first commercial oil to actually work in the world with the first modern oil refinery, using oil extracted from local mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal to produce naphtha and lubricating oil; paraffin for the use of solid fuel and paraffin was not sold until 1856.

The world's first oil refinery built in 1856 by Ignacy? Ukasiewicz. His accomplishments also include the discovery of how to distill kerosene from seepage oil, the invention of modern kerosene lamps (1853), the introduction of the first modern streetlight in Europe (1853), and the construction of the world's first modern oil well (1854).

The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America and around the world is rapidly growing. Edwin Drake's 1859 is also near Titusville, Pennsylvania, popularly regarded as the first modern well. Already 1858 Georg Christian Konrad HunÃÆ'¤us has discovered a large amount of petroleum while drilling for lignite 1858 in Wietze, Germany. Wietze then gives about 80% of Germany's consumption in the Wilhelminian Era. Production stopped in 1963, but Wietze has hosted the Petroleum Museum since 1970.

Drake wells may be selected because they are drilled, not excavated; because it uses a steam engine; because there are companies associated with it; and because it touched a big explosion. However, there were many activities before Drake in different parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers drilled a well in the Baku area in 1848. There was a well drilled machine in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's well. An early commercial well was dug by hand in Poland in 1853, and another in nearby Romania in 1857. At about the same time, the world's first small oil refinery opened in Jas? O in Poland, with the larger ones opened in Ploie? ti in Romania shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have annual crude oil yields officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.

The first commercial oil wells in Canada began operations in 1858 in Oil Springs, Ontario (then Western Canada). Businessman James Miller Williams dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before finding rich oil reserves, four meters underground. Williams extracted 1.5 million liters of crude oil in 1860, refining it into kerosene lamp oil. Williams both became commercial a year before Pennsylvania's Drake operation and it could be said to be the first commercial oil well in North America. The discovery in Oil Springs sparked an oil explosion that brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Progress in drilling continued into 1862 when local driller Shaw reached a depth of 62 meters using a spring drilling method. On January 16, 1862, after the explosion of natural gas, Canada's first oil gusher went into production, firing into the air at a rate of 3,000 barrels per day. By the end of the 19th century, the Russian Empire, especially the Branobel company in Azerbaijan, had taken the lead in production.

Access to oil is still a major factor in several military conflicts in the 20th century, including World War II, where oil facilities are a major strategic asset and widely bombed. The German invasion of the Soviet Union included a goal to capture the Baku oil field, as it would provide much-needed oil supplies to the blockade-facing German military. Oil exploration in North America during the early 20th century then led to the US becoming a major producer in the mid-century. Because oil production in the US peaked in the 1960s, however, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.

Today, about 90 percent of the vehicle's fuel needs are met by oil. Oil also forms 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but accounts for only 1 percent of power generation. The value of petroleum as a solid and portable energy source that drives most of the vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities. The continuity of oil commodities is controlled by several key parameters, the number of vehicles in the world competing for fuel, the amount of oil exported to the world market (Exports of Land Models), the acquisition of clean energy (economically useful energy provided less energy consumed), politics the stability of oil exporting countries and the ability to maintain oil supply lines

The three largest oil producing countries are Russia, Saudi Arabia and the United States. About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from Arab 5: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. Most of the world's total oil exists as an unconventional source, such as asphalt in the Athabasca oil sands and extra heavy oils in the Orinoco Belt. While significant oil volumes are extracted from oil sands, especially in Canada, logistical and technical barriers persist, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making the clean energy content sufficiently low compared to conventional crude oil. As such, Canadian oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the future.

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Composition

In the strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in general use it includes all liquid, gas and solid hydrocarbons. Under surface tension and temperature conditions, lighter methane, ethane, propane, and butane hydrocarbons occur as gases, whereas pentane and heavier hydrocarbons are liquid or solid. However, in underground oil reservoirs the proportions of gases, liquids, and solids depend on subsurface conditions and on the petroleum phase diagram diagram.

The oil well produces crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower on the surface than under the ground, some of the gas will come out of the solution and be recovered (or burned) as a gas-related gas or gas solution. A gas well produces a gas that is predominantly natural. However, since the temperature and pressure of the underground are higher than on the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and heptane in the form of gases. At these surface conditions will condense out of the gas to form "natural gas condensate", often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some light, volatile crude oil.

The proportion of light hydrocarbons in petroleum mixtures varies greatly among different oil fields, ranging from as much as 97 percent by weight in light oil to as little as 50 percent in heavier oil and bituminous.

Hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons, while other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. Many oil reservoirs contain live bacteria. The exact molecular composition of the crude oil varies greatly from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements varies over fairly narrow limits as follows:

Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on the composition. Usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In reservoirs are usually found in association with natural gas, which form lighter "gas caps" over petroleum, and salt water, heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath. Crude oil can also be found in a semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the Athabasca oil sands of Canada, where it is usually referred to as raw asphalt. In Canada, the asphalt is considered a sticky, black, crude form of oil, like a very thick and heavy tar that must be heated or diluted before it flows. Venezuela also has a large amount of oil in the Orinoco oil sands, although the hydrocarbons trapped inside are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called extra heavy oils. This oil sands resource is called non-conventional oil to distinguish it from the extractable oil using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain about 3.6 trillion barrels (570 ÃÆ'â € " 10 ^ ⁹ Ã, m ³ ) of asphalt and extra heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's conventional oil reserves.

Petroleum is mostly used, by volume, to produce fuel oil and gasoline, the two important "energy sources" important. 84 percent of the volume of hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other petroleum fuels, and liquefied petroleum gases. The lighter crude grades produce the best results from this product, but because the world's crude and world oil reserves are depleted, the refineries increasingly have to process heavy oil and asphalt, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the product. required. Because heavier crude oil has too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removal of carbon from or adding hydrogen to molecules, and using liquid catalytic cracking to change the longer and more complex molecules in oil to the shorter , easier on fuel.

Due to its high energy density, transportation convenience and relative abundance, oil has been the most important energy source in the world since the mid-1950s. Oil is also a raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; 16 percent is not used for energy production converted into these other materials. Petroleum is found in porous rock formations in the upper layers of several areas of the Earth's crust. There is also oil in the sand of oil (tar sand). The known oil reserves are usually estimated at about 190 km ³ (1.2 trillion (short-barrel) barrel without oil sands, or 595 km ³ (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands. The current consumption is about 84 million barrels (13.4 ÃÆ'â € 10 ^{6 6 m 3 ) per day, or 4.9 km 3 per year, producing the remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if the current demand remains static.}

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Chemistry

Petroleum is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons; the most common molecules found are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complex chemicals such as asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique molecular mixture, which determines its physical and chemical properties, such as color and viscosity.

The alkane , also known as paraffin , is a saturated or branched chain-containing saturated hydrocarbon having a general formula C _n H _{2n 2} . They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules can be present in the mixture.

Alkanes from pentane (C ₅ H ₁₂ ) to octane (C ₈ H ₁₈ ) refined to gasoline, which derived from nonane (C ₉ H ₂₀ ) to hexadecane (C ₁₆ H ₃₄ ) into diesel fuel , kerosene and jet fuel. Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined to fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin waxes are alkanes with about 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, though these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecule, which has four or more carbon atoms, is in a gas state at room temperature. They are petroleum gas. Depending on the demand and cost of recovery, these gases are burned, sold as liquefied petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the burners themselves. During the winter, butane (C ₄ H ₁₀ ), is mixed into a gasoline pool at a high price, because its high vapor pressure helps start cool. Liquified under pressure slightly above the atmosphere, best known for lighting matches, but also a major fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be melted under simple pressure, and consumed for almost every application that relies on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.

The cycloalkanes , also known as naphthenes , are saturated hydrocarbons having one or more carbon rings in which the hydrogen atom is embedded according to the formula C _n H _2n . Cycloalkanes have properties similar to alkanes but have a higher boiling point.

The aromatic hydrocarbon is an unsaturated hydrocarbon having one or more planar carbon six rings called the benzene ring, of which the hydrogen atom is embedded with the formula C _n H _{2n -6} . They tend to burn with a flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic.

These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at the oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in gasoline, has the chemical formula C ₈ H ₁₈ and reacts with oxygen exothermically:

2Ã, C
₈ H
_{18 ( l )} 25Ã, O
₂ -> 16Ã, CO
₂ 18Ã, H
₂ O _{( g} (? H = -5,51 MJ/mol octane)

The number of various molecules in the oil sample can be determined by laboratory analysis. The molecules are usually extracted in a solvent, then separated in gas chromatography, and finally determined with the appropriate detector, such as a flame ionization detector or mass spectrometer. Because of the large number of hydrocarbons co-eluted in oil, many of which can not be solved by traditional gas chromatography and usually appear as humps in the chromatogram. This unresolved complex mixture (UCM) of hydrocarbons is very evident when analyzing oils and extracts from oil from oil-exposed organisms. Some components of oil will mix with water: the fraction of water associated with oil.

Incomplete burning of oil and gas produces toxic by-products. Too little oxygen during combustion results in carbon monoxide formation. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from combustion of gasoline in car engines typically include nitrogen oxide which is responsible for the manufacture of photochemical mist.

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Empirical equations for thermal properties

Hot from burning

Pada volume konstan, panas pembakaran produk minyak dapat diperkirakan sebagai berikut:

${\ displaystyle Q_ {v} = 12 {,} 400-2 {,} 100d ^ {2}}  ÂÂ$ ,

di mana ${\ displaystyle Q_ {v}}  ÂÂ$ diukur dalam kalori per gram dan ${\ displaystyle d}  ÂÂ$ adalah gravitasi spesifik pada 60 ° F (16 ° C).

Konduktivitas termal

Konduktivitas termal cairan berbasis minyak bumi dapat dimodelkan sebagai berikut:

${\ displaystyle K = {\ frac {1.62} {API}} [1-0.0003 (t-32)]}  ÂÂ$

di mana ${\ displaystyle K}  ÂÂ$ diukur dalam BTU  ·  ° F ^-1 hr ^-1 ft ^-1 Â, ${\ displaystyle t}  ÂÂ$ diukur dalam  ° F dan ${\ displaystyle API}  ÂÂ$ adalah derajat gravitasi API.

Panas spesifik

Panas spesifik dari minyak petroleum dapat dimodelkan sebagai berikut:

${\ displaystyle c = {\ frac {1} {d}} [0,388 0,00046t]}  ÂÂ$ ,

di mana ${\ displaystyle c}  ÂÂ$ diukur dalam BTU/(lb  ° F), ${\ displaystyle t}  ÂÂ$ adalah suhu dalam Fahrenheit dan ${\ displaystyle d}  ÂÂ$ adalah gravitasi spesifik pada 60 ° F (16 ° C).

Dalam satuan kkal/(kg ° C), rumusnya adalah:

${\ displaystyle c = {\ frac {1} {d}} [0,4024 0,00081t]}  ÂÂ$ ,

di mana suhu ${\ displaystyle t}  ÂÂ$ dalam Celsius dan ${\ displaystyle d}  ÂÂ$ adalah gravitasi spesifik pada 15Â ° C.

Panas laten penguapan

Panas laten penguapan dapat dimodelkan dalam kondisi atmosfer sebagai berikut:

${\ displaystyle L = {\ frac {1} {d}} [110.9-0.09t]}  ÂÂ$ ,

di mana $            {\displaystyle         L      }        \{\backslash \; displaystyle\; L\}\;  ÂÂ$ diukur dalam BTU/lb, ${\ displaystyle t}  ÂÂ$ diukur dalam  ° F dan ${\ displaystyle d}  ÂÂ$ adalah gravitasi spesifik pada 60 ° F (16 ° C).

Dalam satuan kkal/kg, rumusnya adalah:

${\ displaystyle L = {\ frac {1} {d}} [194.4-0.162t]}  ÂÂ$ ,

di mana suhu ${\ displaystyle t}  ÂÂ$ dalam Celsius dan ${\ displaystyle d}  ÂÂ$ adalah gravitasi spesifik pada 15Â ° C.

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Formasi

Oil is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae. A large number of these remains remain on the seafloor or lakes where they are covered with stagnant water (water without dissolved oxygen) or sediments such as mud and mud faster than those that can decompose aerobically. Approximately 1 m below this sediment or low water oxygen concentration, below 0.1 mg/l, and anoxic conditions exist. Temperature also remains constant.

As subsequent layers settle on the seabed or in the lake, strong heat and pressure form in the lower regions. This process causes the organic material to change, first into a wax material known as kerogen, found in various shale oils worldwide, and then with more heat into liquid hydrocarbons and gases through a process known as katagenesis. The formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis in various reactions especially endothermic at high temperature or pressure, or both. These phases are described in detail below.

Anaerobic decay or 1. diagenetic phase

In the absence of abundant oxygen, aerobic bacteria are prevented from decaying organic matter after being buried beneath sediment or water layers. However, anaerobic bacteria are able to reduce sulfate and nitrate between matter to H ₂ S and N ₂ each by using the material as the source for the reactant others. Because of the anaerobic bacteria, it initially begins to rupture mostly by hydrolysis: the polysaccharides and proteins are hydrolyzed into simple sugars and amino acids. This further oxidizes anaerobes at an accelerated rate by bacterial enzymes: eg amino acids through oxidative deamination into imino acids, which in turn react further to ammonia and acids. The monosaccharides in turn eventually decay into CO ₂ and methane. Anaerobic decay products of amino acids, monosaccharides, phenols and aldehydes in combination with fulvic acid. Fat and night are not extensively hydrolyzed under these mild conditions.

Kerogen formation or 2. diagenetic phase

Some phenolic compounds produced from previous reactions act as bacteria and actinomycetales orders of bacteria that produce antibiotic compounds (eg streptomycin). Thus the action of anaerobic bacteria stops about 10 m under water or sediment. The mixture at this depth contains fulvic acid, unreacted fat and night and partially reacted, slightly modified lignin, resin and other hydrocarbons. As more layers of organic matter stick to the seafloor or lake, strong heat and pressure build up in the lower regions. As a result, these mixed compounds begin to join in ways that are poorly understood to kerogen. Combinations occur in the same way as phenol molecules and formaldehyde react to urea-formaldehyde resins, but the formation of kerogens occurs in more complex ways because of larger reactant variations. The total process of kerogen formation from the beginning of anaerobic decay is called diagenesis , a word which means the transformation of matter by the dissolution and recombination of their constituents.

Kerogen into fossil fuel or catagenesis

Kerogen formation continues to a depth of about 1 km from the surface of the earth where temperatures can reach about 50 ° C. Kerogen formation is the midpoint between organic matter and fossil fuel: kerogen may be exposed to oxygen, oxidize and thus disappear or can be buried deeper in the Earth's crust and subjected to conditions that allow it to slowly transform into fossil fuels such as petroleum. The latter occurs through catagenesis in which most reactions are rearranged of the kerogen radicals. These reactions take thousands to millions of years and no external reactants are involved. Due to the radical nature of this reaction, kerogens react to two product classes: having a low H/C ratio (anthracene or similar product) and those with a high H/C ratio (methane or similar product); ie carbon-rich or hydrogen-rich products. Because the closed catagenesis of the external reactants, the composition of the resulting fuel composition depends on the composition of the kerogen through stoichiometric reactions. The 3 main types of kerogen exist: type I (alga), II (liptinic) and III (humic), which are formed mainly from algae, plankton and woody plants (this term includes trees, shrubs and lianas) respectively.

Katagenesis is pyrolytic despite the fact that it occurs at relatively low temperatures (when compared to commercial pyrolysis plants) from 60 to several hundred  ° C. Pyrolysis is possible because of the long reaction time. The heat for catagenesis comes from the decomposition of radioactive material from the crust, especially ⁴⁰ K, ²³² Th, ²³⁵ U and ²³⁸ U. Heat varies with geothermal gradients and is usually 10-30  ° C per km depth from the earth's surface. Unusual magma disorders, however, can create greater local heating.

Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil is formed as an "oil window". Below the minimum temperature the oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen. Above the maximum temperature, the oil is converted into natural gas through a thermal cracking process. Sometimes, oils that form at extreme depths can migrate and get trapped to a much more shallow level. The Athabasca Oil Sands is one such example.

Abiogenic petroleum

The alternative mechanism described above was proposed by Russian scientists in the mid-1850s, the hypothesis of abiogenic oil origin (petroleum formed by inorganic means), but this is contrary to geological and geochemical evidence. Abiogenic oil sources have been found, but never in commercially advantageous amounts. "The controversy is not about whether abiogen oil reserves exist," said Larry Nation of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. "The controversy is about how much they contribute to the overall reserve of the Earth and how much time and effort geologists need to devote to finding them."

src: simspetroleum.com

Reservoir

Three conditions must exist for the oil reservoir to form:

• source rocks rich in hydrocarbon materials buried deep enough for underground heat to cook them into oil,
• porous and permeable reservoir rocks that can accumulate,
• caprock (seal) or other mechanisms to prevent oil from escaping to the surface. In these reservoirs, liquids will usually set themselves like a three-layer cake with a layer of water beneath the oil layer and a layer of gas above it, although different layers vary in size between the reservoirs. Since most hydrocarbons are less dense than rocks or water, they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until they reach the surface or are trapped in porous rocks (known as reservoirs) by the above-resistant rocks. However, this process is influenced by underground water flow, causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometers horizontally or even a short distance down before being trapped in the reservoir. When the hydrocarbon is concentrated in the trap, a form of oil field, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping.

The reaction that produces oil and natural gas is often modeled as a first-order breakup reaction, in which hydrocarbons are broken down into oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and the oil eventually decomposes into natural gas by a series of other reactions. The last set is regularly used in petrochemical plants and oil refineries.

The well is drilled into the oil reservoir to extract the crude oil. Natural Lift production methods that rely on natural reservoir pressure to force oil to the surface are usually temporary enough after the reservoir is first tapped. In some reservoirs, such as in the Middle East, natural stress is sufficient for a long time. However, the natural pressure in most of the reservoirs eventually disappears. Then the oil should be extracted using "artificial lift" meaning. Over time, this "primary" method becomes less effective and "secondary" production methods can be used. The common secondary method is "waterflood" or injecting water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil into the drilled shaft or "borehole." Finally, the "tertiary" or "enhanced" oil recovery method can be used to improve the flow characteristics of oil by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and gases or other chemicals into the reservoir. In the United States, the primary production method produces less than 40 percent of the oil produced daily, the secondary method reaches half, and the remaining 10 percent of tertiary recovery. Extracting oil (or "asphalt") from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires sand mining or shale and heating it in a vessel or retort, or using an "in-situ" method to inject heated liquids into the deposit and then pumping the liquid back saturated with oil.

Unconventional oil reservoir

Oil of regenerative oil-eating bacteria that has escaped to the surface. Oil Sand is a reservoir of partially degraded oil still in the process of escape and decomposes, but contains so much migrating oil, although most have escaped, large quantities still exist - more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. Lighter fractions of crude oil were first crushed, producing a reservoir containing a very heavy form of crude oil, called crude asphalt in Canada, or extra heavy crude in Venezuela. Both countries have the largest oil reserves in the world.

On the other hand, oil shale is a source rock that has not been exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert trapped hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically, oil shale is not always flaky and contains no oil, but is a fine sedimentary rock containing an insoluble organic solid called kerogen. Kerogen in stone can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes. This method has been known for centuries and patented in 1694 under British Crown Patent no. 330 which includes, "How to extract and make large quantities of pitch, tar and oil from a kind of stone." Although oil shale is found in many countries, the United States has the largest deposits in the world.

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Classification

The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil based on the geographic location it produces (eg West Texas Intermediate, Brent, or Oman), gravity API (the size of the oil industry density), and sulfur content. Crude oil can be considered mild if it has a low density or weight if it has a high density; and this can be called as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or acid if it contains large amounts of sulfur.

Geographical location is important because it affects transportation costs to refineries. Crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil because it produces higher gasoline yields, while sweet oil orders higher prices than acid oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less purification to meet the sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consumer countries. Each crude oil has a unique molecular characteristic expressed by analyzing crude oil analysis in a petroleum laboratory.

Barrels from areas where the molecular characteristics of crude oil have been determined and oil has been classified as a reference price worldwide. Some common reference crude are:

• West Texas Intermediate (WTI), high quality, sweet, lighter oil, delivered to Cushing, Oklahoma for North American oil
• Brent Blend, made up of 15 oils from fields in Brent and Ninian systems in the East Shetland Basin of North Sea. The oil landed at the Sullom Voe terminal in Shetland. Oil production from Europe, Africa, and Middle East oil flowing to the West tends to be priced from this oil, which forms the benchmark
• Dubai-Oman, used as a benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil that flows into the Asia-Pacific region
• Filter (from Malaysia, used as a reference for Far East oil)
• Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for Far East heavy oil)
• OPEC Reference Basket, weighted average mixed oil from different countries OPEC (Petroleum Exporting Countries)
• Midway Sunset Heavy, where heavy oils in California are priced
• Western Canada Select benchmark crude oil for heavy and heavy crude (TB).

There is a decrease in the amount of benchmark oil produced each year, so that other oils are more common than those actually delivered. While possible reference prices for West Texas Intermediate are delivered in Cushing, the oil actually traded may be Canadian discounted heavy oil - Western Canadian Select-- shipped in Hardisty, Alberta, and to Brent Blend shipped in Shetland, possibly a Mixed Export of Russia discounts sent at the port of Primorsk.

src: www.mubadalapetroleum.com

Petroleum industry

The petroleum industry is involved in global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transportation (often with oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing of oil products. The industry's largest volume product is fuel oil and gasoline. Oil is also a raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three main components: upstream, middle, and downstream. Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category.

Oil is very important for many industries, and essential for the maintenance of the industrial civilization itself, and thus a critical concern for many countries. Oil accounts for a substantial percentage of the world's energy consumption, ranging from 32 percent to Europe and Asia, to 53 percent for the Middle East, South and Central America (44 percent), Africa (41 percent) and North America (40 percent). The world generally consumes 30 billion barrels (4.8 km) of oil per year, and major oil consumers are mostly developed countries. In fact, 24 percent of the oil consumed in 2004 went to the United States alone, although by 2007 it had dropped to 21 percent of the world's consumed oil.

In the US, in the states of Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon and Washington, the Western Union Petroleum Association (WSPA) represents companies responsible for producing, distributing, refining, transporting and marketing petroleum. This nonprofit trade association was founded in 1907, and is the oldest oil trade association in the United States.

Shipping

In the 1950s, shipping costs reached 33 percent of the price of oil transported from the Persian Gulf to the US, but due to the development of supertankers in the 1970s, shipping costs dropped to just 5 percent of Persian oil prices in UNITED STATES. Due to the increase in the value of crude oil over the past 30 years, the share of shipping costs on the final cost of shipped commodities is less than 3% in 2010. For example, in 2010 shipping costs from Persia Gulf to the US were in the range of 20 $/t and the cost of crude oil shipped about 800 $/t.

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Price

After the collapse of the OPEC pricing system in 1985, and a brief experiment with netback prices, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-related pricing mechanism. First adopted by PEMEX in 1986, market-related prices were widely accepted, and in 1988 it became and is still the main method of fixing crude oil prices in international trade. Current references, or price markers, are Brent, WTI, and Dubai/Oman.

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Usage

Petroleum chemical structures are heterogeneous, composed of hydrocarbon chains of different lengths. Therefore, petroleum can be transported to oil refineries and hydrocarbon chemicals separated by distillation and treated by other chemical processes, which will be used for various purposes. The total cost of a plant is about 9 billion dollars per plant.

Fuels

The most common petroleum distillation fraction is fuel. Fuel included (by increasing the temperature range of boiling):

The classification of petroleum corresponds to the chemical composition.

Other derivations

Some types of hydrocarbons produced can be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products:

• Alkenes (olefin), which can be produced into plastics or other compounds
• Lubricant (produces light engine oil, motor oil, and grease, adds viscosity stabilizer as needed)
• Candles, used in frozen food packaging, among others
• Sulfur or sulfuric acid. It is a useful industrial material. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared as a precursor of oleic acid, a by-product of sulfur removal from fuel.
• Bulk tar
• Asphalt
• Petroleum coke, used in special carbon products or as solid fuel
• Paraffin wax
• Aromatic petrochemicals to be used as precursors in other chemical production

Agriculture

Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, primarily due to increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides.

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Petroleum by country

Consumption statistics

Consumption

According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) forecast for 2011, the world consumes 87,421 million barrels of oil every day.

This table orders the amount of oil consumed in 2011 in thousands of barrels (1000 bbl) per day and in thousand cubic meters (1000 m ³ ) per day:

Source: US Energy Information Administration

Population Data:

¹ peaked oil production in this condition

² This country is not the main oil producer

Production

In petroleum industry terms, production refers to the quantity of crude oil extracted from the reserves, not the literal creation of the product.

Export

In the framework of net exports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand mÃ,³/d:

Source: US Energy Information Administration

¹ top production has passed in this state

² Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact that they are importers and exporters of crude oil, and purify large quantities of oil for the US market. This is a major source of imports of US oil and products, averaging 2,500,000 bbl/d (400,000 m ³ /d) in August 2007.

Total world production/consumption (in 2005) around 84 million barrels per day (13,400,000 m ³ /d).

Import

In the framework of net imports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand mÃ,³/d:

Source: US Energy Information Administration

¹ expected peak production by 2020

² Major oil producer whose production is still increasing

Import Oil to the US by country 2010

Consumers who do not produce

Countries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption.

Sumber: CIA World Factbook

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Efek lingkungan

Since petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment need not be the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities (seismic exploration, drilling, extraction, purification and burning). Phenomena such as seepage holes and tar are examples of areas affecting petroleum without human involvement. Regardless of the source, the effect of petroleum when released into the environment is similar.

Ocean acidity analysis

Oceanic acidification is an increase in the acidity of the Earth's oceans caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO ₂ ) from the atmosphere. This increase in acidity inhibits all marine life - has a greater impact on smaller organisms and shelled organisms (see scallops).

Global warming

When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Along with coal combustion, petroleum combustion can be the largest contributor to increasing CO in the atmosphere ₂ . The atmospheric CO ₂ has increased over the past 150 years to a current level of more than 390 ppmv, from 180 to 300 ppmv from 800 thousand years earlier This rise in temperature may have reduced the Arctic ice cap to 1,100,000 Ã, sqÃ, mi (2,800,000, km ² ), smaller than ever recorded. Because of this disbursement, more oil reserves have been revealed. Approximately 13 percent of the oil that has not been found in the world is in the Arctic.

Extraction

Oil extraction is simply removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). Oils are often found as water emulsions in oil, and special chemicals called demulsifiers are used to separate oil from water. Oil extraction is expensive and sometimes damaging to the environment. Offshore exploration and oil extraction disrupt the surrounding marine environment.

Oil spill

Crude oil and crude oil spills from tanker accidents have damaged natural ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France and many other places.

The amount of oil spilled during the accident has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (eg, Deepwater Horizon oil spill, SS Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills have been shown to have a major impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

Oil spills in the sea are generally much more destructive than on land, as they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in thin oil layers that can cover the coast with a thin layer of oil. It can kill seabirds, mammals, shells, and other organisms it overlains. Oil spills on land are more easily blocked if emergency ground dams can be quickly sawed off around the spill site before most of the oil is released, and land animals can avoid oil more easily.

Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of labor. The fall of bombs and incendiary devices from the plane in the SSÃ ruins, Torrey Canyon produced poor results; Modern techniques will include pumping oil from shipwrecks, such as in the Prestige oil spill or the Erika oil spill.

Although crude oil is composed mostly of various hydrocarbons, certain heterocylic nitrogen compounds, such as pyridine, picoline, and quinoline are reported as crude-related contaminants, as well as oil or coal shale processing facilities, and have also been found in wooden site care sites. This compound has a very high water solubility, and thus tends to dissolve and move with water. Certain natural bacteria, such as Micrococcus , Arthrobacter , and Rhodococcus have been shown to decrease this contaminant.

Tarballs

Tarbal is a clump of crude oil (not to be confused with tar, which is a man-made product derived from pine trees or distilled from petroleum) that has weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are water pollutants in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example in the Santa Barbara Channel of California or in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas. Their concentrations and features have been used to assess the extent of oil spills. Their compositions can be used to identify their source of origin, and the tarballs themselves may be spread over long distances by deep ocean currents. They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including Chromobacterium violaceum, Cladosporium resinae, Bacillus submarine, Micrococcus variance < i> Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Candida marina and Saccharomyces estuari .

Pope

James S. Robbins argues that the emergence of oil-refined kerosene saves a large number of whale species from extinction by providing inexpensive substitutes for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic necessity for open-sea fishing.

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Alternative to petroleum

Of Amerika Se

Source of the article : Wikipedia